The datasets contain numerous grammatical and orthographic errors, poor pronunciation, limited vocabulary, and the content lacks cultural relevance to the language community.

After annotating the entire dataset in each language, there was an additional annotator for each language who reviewed the entire set. Annotators were volunteers, and theyare acknowledged at theendofthiswork.

Reasoning capabilities are crucial for Large Language Models~(LLMs), yet a notable gap exists between English and non-English languages. To bridge this disparity, some works fine-tune LLMs to relearn reasoning capabilities in non-English languages, while others replace non-English inputs with an external model's outputs such as English translation text to circumvent the challenge of LLM understanding non-English.

Large language models (LLMs) increasingly mediate human communication, decision support, content creation, and information retrieval. Despite impressive fluency, these systems frequently produce biased or stereotypical content, especially when prompted with socially sensitive language. A growing body of research has demonstrated that such biases disproportionately affect low-resource languages, where training data is limited and culturally unrepresentative. This paper presents a comprehensive study of inference-time bias mitigation, a strategy that avoids retraining or fine-tuning and instead operates directly on model outputs. Building on preference-ranking models (PRMs), we introduce a unified evaluation framework comparing three methods: (1) baseline single-word generation, (2) PRM-Select best-of-N sampling, and (3) PRM-Sequential refinement guided by PRM critiques. We evaluate these techniques across 200 English prompts and their Urdu counterparts, designed to reflect socio-cultural contexts relevant to gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality, disability, profession, age, and socioeconomic categories. Using GPT-3.5 as a candidate generator and GPT-4o-mini as a PRM-based bias and utility scorer, we provide an extensive quantitative analysis of bias reduction, utility preservation, and cross-lingual disparities. Our findings show: (a) substantial gains over the baseline for both languages; (b) consistently lower fairness scores for Urdu across all methods, highlighting structural inequities in multilingual LLM training; and (c) distinct improvement trajectories between PRM-Select and PRM-Sequential. The study contributes an extensible methodology, interpretable metrics, and cross-lingual comparisons that can support future work on fairness evaluation in low-resource languages.

Multimodal Large Language Models (MLLMs) have shown remarkable performance in high-resource languages. However, their effectiveness diminishes significantly in the contexts of low-resource languages. Current multilingual enhancement methods are often limited to text modality or rely solely on machine translation. While such approaches help models acquire basic linguistic capabilities and produce "thin descriptions", they neglect the importance of multimodal informativeness and cultural groundedness, both of which are crucial for serving low-resource language users effectively. To bridge this gap, in this study, we identify two significant objectives for a truly effective MLLM in low-resource language settings, namely 1) linguistic capability and 2) cultural groundedness, placing special emphasis on cultural awareness. To achieve these dual objectives, we propose a dual-source strategy that guides the collection of data tailored to each goal, sourcing native web alt-text for culture and MLLM-generated captions for linguistics. As a concrete implementation, we introduce MELLA, a multimodal, multilingual dataset. Experiment results show that after fine-tuning on MELLA, there is a general performance improvement for the eight languages on various MLLM backbones, with models producing "thick descriptions". We verify that the performance gains are from both cultural knowledge enhancement and linguistic capability enhancement. Our dataset can be found at https://opendatalab.com/applyMultilingualCorpus.

The democratization of AI is currently hindered by the immense computational costs required to train Large Language Models (LLMs) for low-resource languages. This paper presents Persian-Phi, a 3.8B parameter model that challenges the assumption that robust multilingual capabilities require massive model sizes or multilingual baselines. We demonstrate how Microsoft Phi-3 Mini -- originally a monolingual English model -- can be effectively adapted to Persian through a novel, resource-efficient curriculum learning pipeline. Our approach employs a unique "warm-up" stage using bilingual narratives (Tiny Stories) to align embeddings prior to heavy training, followed by continual pretraining and instruction tuning via Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning (PEFT). Despite its compact size, Persian-Phi achieves competitive results on Open Persian LLM Leaderboard in HuggingFace. Our findings provide a validated, scalable framework for extending the reach of state-of-the-art LLMs to underrepresented languages with minimal hardware resources. The Persian-Phi model is publicly available at https://huggingface.co/amirakhlaghiqqq/PersianPhi.